????? ?? ?? ????????? ??????????? ?? ??? ???????/??????? ??????? ???????, ????????? ?? ?????????+, ???? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?? ????????? ?????????????? ?? ????? ????????? ? ? ???, ? ? ?????, ? ? ???????, ? ? ????, ? ? ????????? ??? ? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ????? ???. ?? ??? ?????’? ???? ?? ???, ??? ?????? ???? ?? ? ????? ?? ?? ??. ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ? ??? ?? ??????????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ????????? ????????. ? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??????????? ???? ??? ???????????, ?? ??? ????????????? ???????, ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????.
?? ??? ??? ?????????? ????????????? ? ? ??????, ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??????. ?? ??? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????????? ?? ??? ????, ??? ?????? ???? ????????.
???? ?????????????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? (? ???? ???? ??????????), ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ? ????? ?????? ???????. ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????, ??? ?? ????? ?? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ? ???????.
?????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????? ???. ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????.
????????, ??? ????????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????.?????????, ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ???????. ??? ??????? ?? ? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????.
??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??????????. ??????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ???????, ?? ?? ???-??????? ??? ?????????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ?? ? ????.
????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??????????? ???? ??????, ???????, ???? ???. ????? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ? ?????? ??? ???????, ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ???????, ???? ??????????????? ?????? ???? ??????????????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????. ?? ?? ?????, ??? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ???????.
Egyptian chariot
Mycenaean chariot
Hittite chariot
? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ? ???????. ?? ??? ? ? ??????, ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ? ??? ?? ?? ?? ????????? ? ????????? ???.
????????????? ??????, ?? ??? ???????, ??? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????????. ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ? ???????. ??? ?? ????? ? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????????? ? ? ?????, ??? ????????? ????????? ?? ?????????,
??? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? (?????) ??? ??? ???, ?????? ?? ????? ? ??? ??????????? ?? ??? ???????? ???????, ??? ??? ????????????. ???? ????????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??. ?? ?? ???????????? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????, ????̀???̀????, ??? ????̀??? ??? ?? ??. ?? ??, ????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ?? ?????, ?? ??, ????? ????, ? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? ? ????, ?.?. ?????????? ?? ?????, ??? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????, ??????, ???, ???? ??? ????-????, ??? ?????????? ????????? ????-?????. ? ?????????? ??????????, ????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? (???́???????-??̀??-?????), ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???-??? ?? ? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????????????????. ?? ???? ???????, ?????? ???????? (???????) ?? ? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??????, ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????, 360 ???? (œ??̂???) ??? ?? ???? ????, ?? ?????? ?????? (???̀????̀??-?????) ?? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ?????? 720 ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????. ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? (?????-????? ??????), ??? ?????? ????? ????? (??????????) ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????. ????? ??? ??? ????, ???????????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ?????-???????? ????? ????? ???? ? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ???? ???, ??????? ?????????? ??????????. ?? ? ????? ??? ????? ?????? (??????-?????), ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????. ??? ????? ???????????? ????????? ?? ? ????-????? ?????????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???-???.
?? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ????????? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????????? ? ????? ???????.
The Signifance of the Sanauli chariot
??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ? ??????? ???? ??????????. ???? ?? ??? ??????????? ???? ?? ????-???? ???, ?? ??????? ???? ? ?????, ???? ??????????? ????? ?????.
???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????????, ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???. ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ????????? ???????. ???? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????. ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ? ??????? ???? ??? ????????? ???????.
???? ? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ??-?????? ‘???????’, ?????????? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????.
???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????, ??? ????? ??? ??? ????????,
??? ?????????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? (??? ?????? 15.13). ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? 1-1.2 ? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ??????-????????? ??????. ????? ?? ???????????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ?????, ??? ???? ??? ???????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????????.
?? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????, ???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????,
????????? ?? ???????? & ???????,
??? ??????? ??????????????? ?? ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????????, ??? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ???????? (?????4?) . ?? ?? ???? ??? ?????????? ???????????? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???????????? ???? ???????????…
??? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????, “?????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ????????? ??????????????, ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????????.”
???? ???? ??????, ?????? ???-???????? ???????, ???? ???? ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????????? ?? ? ??????? ?
?? ????????, ???? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???????.
??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ???????, ????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ????????, ???? ?? ??????? ???, ???????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????-???? ???, ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??????. ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ????-????? ?????????. ???? ????????? ??? ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????? ???. ?????????, ????? ?? ?? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??? ????????????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????.
Warrior Aristocracy
?? ??? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????? ?? ???????, ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????????????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ? ??????? ?????. ???? ? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????? ??, ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???, ?????? ???????, ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??????, ????? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ? ??????? ???????????. ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????????????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?????-????????? ??????????.
?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ????-??????? ???????, ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ??????????? ??? ??? ???????????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????. ??? ???????? ?? ?????????, ??? ??????? ?? ?????, ??? ???????? ?? ????????, ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ??? ????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????????? ?? ??? ???? ????.
???????, ???? ??????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ??? ??????.
…??? ?????? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ? ??????????? ??????? ???? ? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ? ??????? ?? ???, ????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ????. ?? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ??????, ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????????…???? ??????????? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ? ??????? ?? ????: ?? ??? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ‘????’ ??? ??? ???????, ?? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????? ?? ???. ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????????????? ??? ???????????????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???, ??? ? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ??????????, ??? ?????????? ??????????? ????? ????????, ?????????????, ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????????? ????????????…??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ???? ?????: ??? ??????????? ???????????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? (??? ????, ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?????; ?.?., ?????? 2000) ??? ??? ?????? ???????????? ?? ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????. ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????????? ??? ????, ??????????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??????, ?????????? ????? 1600 ?? (?????? 2014). ???????? ???? ?????? ??????????, ?? ???? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ????, ?? ???????? ? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????????. (????, ??????????? ?? ?? 2018, ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????).
?? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????,
???? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????, ??????, ????????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???????. ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????.
??? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????-???????? ??????? ???? ??? ????????, ???????, ???????, ????????, ?????????? ???. ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????. ??? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ? ???? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ????.
???? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?.? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ????????????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ???. ??? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???????????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ?????, ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????. ?????????, ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???. ???? ??????? ???? ????. ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????.
?? ?? ????????? ??? ?????????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ???????, ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ?????????, ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????-????????? ??? ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ???????.
??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????.
?????, ??? ???????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????, ?? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ? ???? ????????? ?? ?? ??????? ????? (???? & ????). ??? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????. ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????????. ??? ????? ????? ???????????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???, ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ????????????.
?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? ????-???????? ??????. ?? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????????, ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????.
?? ?? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ??-?????????, ??? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ?? ??? ??????? ????-????????? ?? ??? ???? ????, ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??? ??????. ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?????????. ?? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????????????. ?? ????? ?? ???????????? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????.
???? ??????????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ????, ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????-???????/????-????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ??????, ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??????? ????.
…??? ???????? ????????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????, ?? ???????? ?????. ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?? ???? ????, ???????? ??????????…??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????, ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ????, ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??? 16?? ??? 9?? ????????? ??, ???????? ???? ??? 8?? ??????? ??…??? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????…
? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??, ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????????? ???. ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????????. ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ????????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????????? ???.
??? ???? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ? ??-?????????. ????? ?? ??????? ? ??????????? ??????? ????. ????? ??? ???????????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ????, ????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ???? ? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ? ???????????? ???? ??? ??????, ????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ????????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ???-????????.
The Warrior Culture in Bronze Age India
??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ?????. ?????? ????? ???????’? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????-???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ???????.
????????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????????????. ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????????? ???. ????, ????????, ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?????????????, ??? ?? ??? ?? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ?????????, ???? ????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????’? ???????????.
???? ??????? ?????? ?? ?? ???????? ????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???????, ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??????? (?? ?????) ??? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????.
Bactrian antennae sword
???????, ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ???.
???? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????? ?? ???????? ?????????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????. ? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????. ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ??????. ???? ? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????. ????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ? ????????? ??????. ?? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????. ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????????.
Mycenaean swords
Shields
???? ??? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????????. ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ??????????? ?? ?????. ?? ???? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????????.
Mycenaean
Conclusion
?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ?? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ?? ???????? ? ????? ?? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???. ?? ?? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???????? ??, ????? ?? ????????? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ??????????.
Well researched post.
Interesting!!! Hope the dots get connected soon
The Sintashta chariots did not leave any traces as they were made of wood alone. The Sinauli chariot is so well preserved because it is bronze clad.
Thereby hangs a tale. Bronze cladding is an expensive proposition especially for 4000 years ago. The warrior elites of Sinauli were technologically advanced enough to spare so much bronze for a burial. Sintashta elites were only peaking with wood burials – a statement about their relative pauperhood wrt metallurgy.
I even have doubts if the Sintashta carts were functional or ceremonial. Parpola’s agitation is stemming from the same recognition.
Sinauli is going to yield a horse burial – I am sure of it. Steppes archaeological discoveries have peaked and gone. That’s all there is in those backwaters. We are only beginning with the Indian expeditions.
@Ugra
We are responsible for the lack of attention in Indian excavations. Even now, we can only hope that better sense prevails and the matter is taken up with the urgency and importance that it deserves.
@Jaydeepsinh Rathod
Everything is a function of budget. ASI covers an area the size of pre 2004 European Union. It’s budget, until recently, was a paltry 150 million USD!!!
Only in 2019 did the Modi Govt hike it to a billion USD. Money talks and walks! I see the AIT Vs OIT battle as a socio-economic fight as well. The more prosperous India is, the more it will spend and discover it’s antiquity. I see a pressing need for a dedicated Department of Archaeogenetics. If only wishes were horses…
The point really is this – with increasing prosperity, will be really allocate greater resources to things that matter ? It is as much about priorities as it is about resources. Let us hope things improve.
Agree with you, current society is not obsessed with history or historical exactness. Even governments have lost the appetite to make it a point of change.
I can’t read the post… the words in the text appear as a series of blocks, with a diagonally-crossed rectangle in place of each letter in the word… (except for a few instances in the text where I can read numbers like 360, 720, 2014, etc).
I remember having had a similar problem reading the last 2 or 3 posts by Jaydeepsinh Rathod.
Anyone familiar with the type of problem I described?
this may be off the track, but where does liny srinivasan fit into ‘ egypt had links with vedic people’ ??
Great article!
I don’t think it’s clear that this is a horse chariot rather than a bullock cart. (I wouldn’t be confident betting either way with the current evidence)
Besides that point though, I still get particularly annoyed by the completely unfounded claims that the Meluhhan civilization was somehow a magical peaceful civilization unacquainted with the art of war. How long will it take for that myth to get relegated to the dustbins?
Why do you think that this could be a Bullock cart ? And what are your views on the Sintashta ‘chariot’ ?
I thought the Sintashta chariot evidence was much slimmer than most of the other claims in David W. Anthony’s book. At the same time, his ability to discern complex migration patterns that were subsequently validated by genetic research leads me to assign a higher level of credence to anything David W. Anthony claims.
Ummon,
David Anthony is not the 1st one to propose steppe migrations into Early Bronze Age Europe. It has been understood by archaeologists in Europe since many decades. And it was Marija Gimbutas who proposed the steppe theory of IE origins in the 1950s. Another famous proponent of steppe theory is James Mallory, who is also senior to Anthony.
So there is no reason to get mesmerised by his scholarship. He is building up on decades of early research & scholarship. Yet they are not showing how IE originated on the steppe. They have hardly any proof. The only proof they have is that people indeed migrated from the steppe into Europe. But were they Indo-Europeans ?
You’re being disingenuous. There is a difference between simply proposing steppe migrations into Europe, and actually giving details accounts of migration patterns along with associated timings and specific material cultures (including predicting such complex migrations as the reflux migration back to the Sintashta culture).
The specificity of David W. Anthony’s predictions, and the fact that they were subsequently backed up by all the genetic evidence we’ve uncovered, is definitely impressive.
I don’t think it’s clear that this is a horse chariot rather than a bullock cart. (I wouldn’t be confident betting either way with the current evidence)
@Ummon – If you are ignorant about the principles of kinematic steering and turning arcs, then you shouldn’t be doing any kind of betting. Only knowledgeable people make reasoned decisions about betting.
A vehicle takes a certain amount of radius to turn – which is determined by the Ackerman geometry of front or rear steering mechanisms, maximum steerable angles for the wheels, length between the front and rear wheel, length between vehicle centre to the rear wheel and finally, any presence of a dual steering mechanism (for both front and rear).
For any kind of vehicle (war or transport), a lower turning radius is desirable. This is because of the fixed geometry of roads, terrain, bridges and entrances to buildings.
Longer vehicles have a higher turning radius than shorter vehicles – unless it is offset by some other mechanism such as all steering wheels. These are the laws of geometry – they apply to horse wagons, ox carts and Formula 1 cars.
The yoke length of the Sinauli chariot is 230 cms (2.3 m).
The average length of a Zebu bull varies between 1.5 metres to 1.8 metres. There are special Zebu bulls bred for stud purposes which might reach 2.0 m. But the median length is far lower.
A average horse on the other hand is a full 50 cms longer than a Zebu bull – closer to the 2.0 m. Some good pedigree horses reach 2.3 m or longer.
Therefore the vehicle designer of the Sinauli chariot would have made allowance for the animals pulling it. To make a longer yoke for a shorter animal carries a turning radius penalty. Therefore the yoke length alone is a big indicator of a longer animal pulling it.
When an expert like SK Manjul tells you it is a horse driven chariot, just believe him. I can clearly bet that you have no comprehension of vehicle design concepts.
If you ignore the much longer neck and head (which is irrelevant to the placement of a yoke), early horses were barely larger than a zebu, so the turning issues would apply to both horse and bullock carts.
…If you ignore the much longer neck and head (which is irrelevant to the placement of a yoke)
You are clearly spouting nonsense here. But good to see that you are now thinking about the points I raised 🙂
For a zebu pulled cart, the front yoke-arm goes exactly in front of the zebu’s hump and thats how the propulsive power is transferred to the cart. The hump acts as a brake to prevent the yoke from sliding back. For a horse, the yoke-arm is saddled to the neck via a collar.
So the zebu is much more in front of the yoke rather than the horse. Because the zebu hump is exactly over its front legs. About 30% of its body is in front. So its even more ridiculuous to pretend that only a meter of the zebu’s body requires almost 2 meters of yoke.
@Jaydeepsinh Rathod – Is it possible to update this post with one additional picture – with a superimposed picture of a zebu with its hump behind the yoke. Versus a horse in the pulling position. Scaling should be possible as we have all dimensions. It will greatly clarify things for non-technical readers.
That actually backs up my point. A zebu’s hump is above its front legs, so the bullock cart yoke-arm sits past the hump on the zebu’s lower neck. In contrast, a horse chariot’s yoke-arm typically sits on its upper back, just behind the front legs.
A picture diagram would show this – just need to use a “pony” rather than a modern oversized horse.
Ugra,
I have added a screenshot from the documentary with a bull superimposed instead of the horse. But I don’t think it is quite accurate and will be of much help.
@Jaydeepsinh Rathod
Its a good start. The position of the bull needs a bit of adjustment. The yoke-arm, the front part of the T, sits just in front of the hump. So the bull has to move to the front – till its front legs are perpendicular with the yoke-arm.
We also need a good picture of a zebu with a well-defined hump. On twitter, a user named Rahul Chawla, has made an excellent comparison with real pictures – for the yoke and the yoke-arm. Really stands out. I have posted that tweet below.
The other major thing – since the yoke arm goes above the bull’s body and rests on the hump, the whole angle of the chariot will get a tilt – in fact Manoj Bajpai will fall out, if he doesn’t hold on to anything!!
By the way, many of the clay or bronze models of bullock carts in the Indus Valley civilization show rather large separation between the oxen and the wagons.
The following are some arguments to consider in favour of considering the Sanauli wagon as a chariot :-
1. The carriage of the Sanauli wagon is small and designed in a way that you have to stand on it rather than sit. Clearly such a way of conveyance is unsuitable for travelling long distances.
2. Lack of space on the carriage also indicates that it was not meant for transport of goods.
Since, this makes the design unsuitable for transport, either of humans or of goods, what other purpose could it mean to serve but as a war machine ?
3. Since the people buried with the chariots also have weapons along with them, it indicates that they were warriors. This further supports the argument that the Sanauli wagons were used in battle.
4. The long length of the yoke allows for greater distance between the carriage and the animal, facilitating the quick and unhindered movement of the animal including making sharp turns. A quick and fast moving vehicle would be meant for a war and not transport.
5. The layout of the Sanauli wagon, especially the carriage, with a dashboard in front, is identical in size and design, to the later Bronze Age light weight chariots that we know about from Near East and also from the much later Iron Age Europe.
Considering the points above, it looks likely that the Sanauli wagon was designed as a fast moving light weight war vehicle.
6. Both the horse as well as the spoked wheel were well known in NW India already during the Harappan period. If the horses were known, you would expect the Harappans to have known that horses can easily outrun the bulls. Therefore, their use to pull the Sanauli wagon is quite probable. This argument is further corroborated by considering how the Sanauli wagon/chariot resembles so much the design of later horse drawn chariots that we know of. It is unlikely that a vehicle designed to be pulled by bulls, could be switched and then continued to be used for horses for centuries.
7. The only objection would be why is there no spoked wheel, to which I have answered in the OP itself. It is undoubtedly the earliest chariot specimen and therefore quite likely to show the vestiges of an early experimentation phase, when solid & spoked wheels were both likely used, as compared to the later period when standardisation with the use of the spoked wheel had set in.
Plus, as I have also noted, the wheels symbolically represent the radiating Sun and the chariot was a solar symbol during the Vedic period. This, plus the burial rites, connects the Sanauli people with the Vedic belief system. This also means that the Mitanni Indo-Aryans in Syria who were using the Vedic Gods, and who are believed to have brought chariots in the Near East, must be related to the Vedic people of Sanauli.
So if Vedic beliefs were already in place, and if we consider all the points mentioned above, there are no substantial grounds to deny the assertion that the Sanauli wagon is the earliest known specimen of the Bronze Age chariot.
To be clear lest my comments get misinterpreted I believe that the Sinauli chariot is evidence of Aryan presence at Sinauli in the ochre colored pottery culture. That’s regardless of whether the chariot itself was pulled by cattle or horses.
We discussed about the length of the yoke.
A Twitter user has posted another important distinction – the length of the yoke arm. The “yoke arm” is the T section at the front of the yoke. For carts pulled by oxen, the yoke arm is longer to match the width of 2 oxen. Because as we discussed earlier, bulls transfer their pulling power to the yoke by the hump and the neck. So the yoke-arm needs to be wider too. Check the photo in the tweet below.
https://mobile.twitter.com/eRahulChawla/status/1405752776932528134
To conclude, a horse chariot has a longer yoke and a shorter yoke-arm. While an oxcart has a shorter yoke and a wider yoke-arm.
If you look at the Daimabad Bronze of an oxcart, it even has two U shaped halters on the yoke-arm to transfer the pulling power more efficiently.
https://www.facebook.com/currenttimetv/videos/2171710199541391/
@old
Perfect….you see how high the yoke arm goes and how wide it is? Because of the angle, the rider is almost standing on the ground!
Is there an effort to extract ancient DNA from Sinauli. I very much look forward to learning about the y haplogroups we find there.
Sun chariots & bull insignias… is this the Ikshvakus? According to the Jain tradition, Ikshvaku’s name with Rishaba, making the bull & sun symbolism an intriguing combination.